Research on School Bullying

This article is extract from Aggression and Violent Behavior 14 (2009) 146–156: Bullying in different contexts: Commonalities, differences and the role of theory.

Research on School Bullying

Bullying has been a focus of research for over 20 years. There has been debate over the definition of the term “bullying”, but most researchers agree that it is an act that is intended to harm, that takes place repeatedly, and with an imbalance of power between the aggressor and target (Farrington, 1993). This is put succinctly by Smith and Sharp and Rigby as a “systematic abuse of power”. In order to understand fully the risk factors involved in studying bullying we need to look to theory. Examination of the characteristics of those who bully or are bullied , and situational factors involved suggest that a number of different psychological approaches may make interesting contribution from which to develop interventions and preventative measures. 

This article is focused on school bullying, which is probable a reflection of the longer research history in this filed. Starting with research in Scandinavia, Japan, and the United Kingdom (U.K.), there is now active research in most European countries, in Australia, New Zealand, Canada, and the United States (U.S.).

Nature and extent

Main types are physical and verbal bullying, indirect and relational bullying (such as spreading nasty rumors), and social exclusion. Recent research has highlighted cyber bullying via mobile ‘phones and the Internet’ So-called “bias bullying” refers to bullying because of some group (rather than individual) characteristic of the recipient.

A development of the latter (Salmivalli, Lagerspetz, Björkqvist, Österman, & Kaukiainen, 1996) allows differentiation of participant roles, such as ringleader bully, follower, reinforcer, outsider, and defender, as well as victim. Studies with young children suggest that aggressor and defender roles can be recognized by 4–5 years, although few children are continually targeted so early; peer-aggression is more randomly distributed, but becomes focused on certain children later, for example those at risk in various ways (Monks, Smith, Swettenham, 2003).

Characteristics

In school, the majority of bullying takes place in the playground, classroom, or corridors. Self-reports of being bullied decline over the 8 to 16 year period; self-reports of bullying others do not. There tends to be some shift with age away from physical bullying and toward indirect and relational bullying. Boys are more numerous in the bully category, but the sexes are more equal in being bullied. Boys practice/ experience more physical bullying, girls more indirect and relational bullying (Olweus, 1993; Smith et al., 1999).

School factors

There are large school variations in the prevalence of bullying, but factors such as size of school, class size or rural versus big city setting are usually not related to this. However, the school ethos, attitudes of teachers in bullying situations, and the degree of supervision of free
activities appear to be of major significance, as is the existence of an effective school policy (Galloway ; Roland, 2004).

Individual risk factors

Risk factors for being bullied include having few friends, especially friends who can be trusted or who are not themselves of low status; sociometric rejection (Hodges, Malone, Perry, 1997); and coming from over-protective families (Smith; Myron-Wilson, 1998).

Another risk factor is having a disability or special educational needs (e.g., Mishna, 2003; Wainscot, Naylor, Sutcliffe, Tantam; Williams, 2008).


Children of minority ethnic origin often experience more racist name calling (though not necessarily other forms of bullying) than children from the ethnic majority (Monks, Ortega-Ruiz; Rodríguez-Hidalgo, 2008).



In secondary schools, children may be bullied about their sexual orientation, and even physically assaulted or ridiculed about this by teachers or other pupils; a review (Warwick, Chase, Aggleton; Sanders, 2004) found estimates of 30–50% of same-sex attracted young people in U.K. secondary schools having experienced homophobic bullying.



Children who bully others may be hot-tempered, and come from families lacking warmth, in which violence is common, and discipline inconsistent (Olweus, 1993). Fathers who were aggressive and bullying at school are likely to have sonswhowere bullying at school (Farrington, 1993). Children who are bully-victims may come from particularly troubled or abusive families (Schwartz, Dodge, Pettit, Bates, 1997).



Although some bullying childrenmay lack social skills, ringleader bullies especially may have good “theory of mind” abilities and be skilled social manipulators (Sutton, Smith, Swettenham, 1999).

Impact

Bullied children are significantly more likely to report not sleeping well, bed wetting, feeling sad, and experiencing head and stomach aches. School doctors and nurses may well be presented with symptoms due to bullying, with implications for school health services (Dawkins, 1995). The experience of being bullied correlates with anxiety, depression, and low self-esteem (Hawker , Boulton, 2000). Findings of low self-esteem for bullies are mainly limited to aspects (e.g., “behavioural self-worth”) directly related to antisocial
behaviour. (O'Moore, 2000).

Individual coping strategies

Pupils adopt a variety of coping strategies when bullied. The success of these varies, and is age- and gender-dependent; however, non-assertive strategies, such as crying, are less successful than ignoring or seeking help.



A substantial proportion of self-reportedbullied pupils say that they have not told a teacher, or someone at home, about the bullying (Naylor, Cowie, del Rey, 2001). This proportion who have not told increases with age; this may reflect the more serious nature of bullying at older age groups as pupils may feel more afraid to tell. The success of telling teachers will depend on the school context (Kochenderfer, Ladd, 1997).

Peer action against bullying

A survey of peer support schemes in schools (Naylor, Cowie, 1999) found that there were benefits to the users, to the peer helpers in terms of confidence and responsibility, and to the school atmosphere generally; but also problems due to some hostility to peer helpers from other pupils, difficulties in recruiting boys as peer supporters, and ensuring sufficient time and resources for proper implementation. An evaluation of the work of CHIPS (ChildLine in Partnership with Schools) in 20 schools (Smith , Watson, 2004), found buddying and befriending schemes common in primary schools, peer mentoring or lunchtime clubs in secondary schools.



Some methods included use of the internet and e-mail support. A clear majority of users said CHIPS had helped them and that they would use the service again.

School action against bullying

Monitored interventions range from case studies of a particular school with a whole-school program against bullying to larger-scale projects. Recent reviews (e.g., Smith, Pepler, Rigby, 2004) suggest that these have effects ranging from a maximum of 50% reduction in prevalence rates, down to near zero or even small negative outcomes; with most outcomes positive and in the range of 10–20% reduction.

Controversies continue as to the effectiveness of whole-school policies (Woods , Wolke, 2003), the use of more or less direct negative sanctions against children who bully others (Smith, Howard, Thompson, 2007), and whether the most effective strategies are specifically directed to targeting bullying, or instead directed to class climate and pupil–pupil and pupil–teacher relations more generally (Galloway, Roland, 2004). School bullying continues to be written about and researched in many countries (Smith et al., 1999).

Does bullying build character? Human Behavioural Specialist Dr John Demartini is outspoken on the benefits of bullying. He talks to David Oldfield about bullying and asks is it bittersweet or simply self-destructive?
Are you a victim of history, or master of your destiny? Follow the link to find more for this point of view http://www.2ue.com.au/blogs/2ue-blog/bullying-lay-down-and-take-it-or/20110323-1c5np.html

SHARE WITH US YOUR THOUGHTS !

A values driven approach to dealing with bullying for victims & perpetrators (video)

Bullying is a big problem with big consequences. It can make you feel hurt, scared, sick and lonely. Building resilience is critical in your long term ability to deal with similar issues. Ken Marslew AM, CEO of EIE speaks from his own experience on dealing with bullying using a values driven approach. Music by Greg McCosker written especially for Enough is Enough Anti Violence Movement.

Ten Strategies in School Bullying Prevention & Intervention

School bullying was the target of a two-day Bullying Prevention Summit in Washington, USA on 11-12 Aug 2010. The bullying summit, which was being attended by government officials as well as superintendents, researchers, corporate leaders and students, looked to come up with a national plan to reduce and end bullying in schools.

Dr Susan Limber presented at this summit, where she outlined 10 best strategies that represent “best practices” in bullying prevention. The following extract was taken from the website www.stopbullyingnow.hrsa.gov and represents Susan’s research and experience in this area. Below this extract is some information about Enough is Enough’s latest program to address bullying in our schools and the community. We invite you to share your thoughts with us.

Susan P. Limber is director of the Centre on Youth Participation and Human Rights and professor of psychology at Clemson University. Dr. Limber's research and writing have focused on legal and psychological issues related to youth violence (particularly bullying among children), child protection, and children's rights. She directed the first wide-scale implementation and evaluation of the Olweus Bullying Prevention Program in the United States.

Bullying is aggressive behaviour that is intentional and that involves an imbalance of power or strength.
Often, it is repeated over time and can take many forms. In many respects, research on bullying prevention is still in its infancy. Although researchers have documented success of some comprehensive programs in reducing bullying, we still have much to learn about which aspects of these programs are most important.

However, a review of existing bullying prevention programs and feedback from educators in the field led us to suggest ten strategies that represent “best practices” in bullying prevention and intervention.

1. Focus on the social environment of the school

To reduce bullying, it is important to change the climate of the school and the social norms with regard to bullying. It must become “uncool” to bully, “cool” to help out students who are bullied, and normative for staff and students to notice when a child is bullied or left out. This requires the efforts of everyone in the school environment–teachers, administrators, counsellors, other non-teaching staff (such as bus drivers, nurses, school resource officers, custodians, cafeteria workers, and school librarians), parents, and students.

2. Assess bullying at your school

Intuitively adults are not always very good at estimating the nature and extent of bullying at their school. Frequently we are quite surprised by the amount of bullying that students experience, the types of bullying that are most common, or the “hot spots” where bullying happens. As a result, it is often quite useful to assess bullying by administering an anonymous questionnaire to students about bullying. What are the possible benefits of conducting a survey of students?

• Findings can help motivate adults to take action against bullying;
•  Data can help administrators and other educators tailor a bullying prevention strategy to the particular needs of the school; and
• Data can serve as a baseline from which administrators and other educators can measure their progress in reducing bullying.

3. Garner staff and parent support for bullying prevention

Bullying prevention should not be the sole responsibility of an administrator, counsellor, teacher–or any single individual at a school. To be most effective, bullying prevention efforts require buy-in from the majority of the staff and from parents.

4. Form a group to coordinate the school's bullying prevention activities

Bullying prevention efforts seem to work best if they are coordinated by a representative group from the school. This coordinating team (which might include an administrator, a teacher from each grade, a member of the non-teaching staff, a school counsellor or other school-based mental health professional, a school nurse, and a parent) should meet regularly to digest data from the school survey described in Strategy 2; plan bullying prevention rules, policies, and activities; motivate staff, students, and parents; and ensure that the efforts continue over time. A student advisory group also can be formed to focus on bullying prevention and provide valuable suggestions and feedback to adults.

5. Train your staff in bullying prevention

All administrators, faculty, and staff at your school should be trained in bullying prevention and intervention. In-service training can help staff to better understand the nature of bullying and its effects, how to respond if they observe bullying, and how to work with others at the school to help prevent bullying from occurring. Training should not be available only for teaching staff. Rather, administrators should make an effort to educate all adults in the school environment who interact with students (including counsellors, media specialists, school resource officers, nurses, lunchroom and recess aides, bus drivers, parent volunteers, custodians, and cafeteria workers).

6. Establish and enforce school rules and policies related to bullying

Although many school behaviour codes implicitly forbid bullying, many codes do not use the term or make explicit our expectations for student behaviour. It is important to make clear that the school not only expects students not to bully, but that it also expects them to be good citizens, not passive bystanders, if they are aware of bullying or students who appear troubled, possibly from bullying. Developing simple, clear rules about bullying can help to ensure that students are aware of adults' expectations that they refrain from bullying and help students who are bullied. 

For example, one comprehensive program, the Olweus Bullying Prevention Program (see resources section on the Web site) recommends that schools adopt four straightforward rules about bullying:• We will not bully others.
• We will try to help students who are bullied.
• We will make it a point to include students who are easily left out.• If we know someone is being bullied, we will tell an adult at school and an adult at home.

School rules and policies should be posted and discussed with students and parents. Appropriate positive and negative consequences also should be developed for following or not following the school's rules.

7. Increase adult supervision in hot spots where bullying occurs

Bullying tends to thrive in locations where adults are not present or are not vigilant. Once school personnel have identified hot spots for bullying from the student questionnaires, look for creative ways to increase adults' presence in these locations.

8. Intervene consistently and appropriately in bullying situations

All staff should be able to intervene effectively on the spot to stop bullying (i.e., in the 1–2 minutes that one frequently has to deal with bullying). Designated staff should also hold sensitive follow-up meetings with children who are bullied and (separately) with children who bully. Staff should involve parents of affected students whenever possible.

9. Focus some class time on bullying prevention

It is important that bullying prevention programs include a classroom component. Teachers (with the support of administrators) should set aside 20–30 minutes each week (or every other week) to discuss bullying and peer relations with students. These meetings help teachers to keep their fingers on the pulse of students' concerns, allow time for candid discussions about bullying and the harm that it can cause, and provide tools for students to address bullying problems. Anti-bullying themes and messages also can be incorporated throughout the school curriculum.

10. Continue these efforts over time

There should be no “end date” for bullying prevention activities. Bullying prevention should be woven into the entire school environment.

Enough is Enough has launched the new bullying resiliency program in  schools, known as Positive Solutions. 
It is a multi-session program designed to tackle bullying in and outside the school. While it targets bullying behaviour, its outcomes can extend beyond the positive classroom to develop more robust and resilient students and community citizens. Ken Rigby, one of the most famous Australian anti-bullying experts, has contributed to the content of this project. 

Ken Rigby is an Adjunct Research Professor and an educational consultant based at the University of South Australia.Over the last ten years he has become a leading authority on bullying and peer victimisation with more than 100 refereed papers and other publications. His book "Bullying in schools and what to do about it" has been published in Australia, the UK and North America and is regarded as a standard text.

The following extract from Active Education Magazine(1) outlines  Rigby's three broad approaches that schools use in responding to bullying.
Moralistic approach
 This involves an assumption that the perpetrator of aggression is doing the wrong thing deliberately. It involves confronting the aggressor with the values of the school, an insistence upon apologies, the employment of consequences and often the involvement of parents. While it can work, it does not necessarily actively engage the aggressor and can result in a bully cynically acquiescing to demands while planning to get back at the victim in more indirect ways.

Legalistic approach
 This involves a set of rules and predetermined sanctions for breaking them. It involves no moralising but simply the consistent application of a policy. Advantages include the clear communication of expectations and the relative speed with which the policy can be implemented in individual cases. Students and parents are often involved in establishing the policy and this can make the enforcement of the rules more acceptable. Some schools have taken the underlying legal philosophy further by establishing "bully courts", including mock trials involving perpetrators, victims and witnesses, and the handing down of verdicts and relevant punishments. While the legalistic approach has been very successful, critics argue that it does not necessarily engage the perpetrators, who may still seek revenge on the victim and/or witnesses.

Humanistic approach
 Humanism views peoples basically good and having the capacity to do the right thing when they are trusted, respected and encouraged. The best-known humanistic method of dealing with bullying is the Method of Shared Concern, developed by Anatol Pikas, which sees bullies and victims invited to a series of individual and group meetings to draw up a plan for behaviour change that is followed up on to ensure it is carried out. Opinion on the efficacy of this method is divided, with critics deriding it as naive and idealistic. It very much depends on the skills of the teachers involved.

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Enough is Enough proudly presents:

Positive Solutions Bullying Resilience Program

Watch Our Introductory Video

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Resources:
1. Professor Larry Owens, PhD, Aggression in schools and What to do about it. Active Education Magazine, June 2010, p 20
2. Bullying Prevention Summit 2010, USA: http://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/osdfs/bullyingagenda.pdf
3. www.stopbullyingnow.hrsa.gov

My Son’s Bully

My son as a ten year old was a very happy kid who was good at school and had a nice group of friends, or so I thought. The trouble all started after his birthday party, he had a few friends over my husband played footy with them, we had cake - it went well.

A few weeks after this I started to find rubbish in my son’s school bag. Banana peels, chip packets and other things that I knew he hadn’t had at school kept appearing in large quantities in his bag and lunch box. We asked him why are you bringing this rubbish home?

Tears welled up and it all came flooding out. His “friend” Luke had put the rubbish in his bag and was continually picking on him in the playground. Luke had told other kids not to play with Jared and that he was fat and stupid. My heart broke and I had to hold tears back, my husband’s first instinct was to tell our son to confront Luke and next time punch him, after glaring looks he recanted and told our son that violence might not be the solution.

We told our son we would look into it and sort something out. But what? What can parents do? How do we fix what we have no control over? I decided to ring the school principal and discuss the matter, he was aware of it and Luke was constantly being placed in detention, was not allowed to participate in sport or excursions and regularly sat out lunchtime in the principal’s office.

My heart broke again, this time for Luke. Why would a ten year old go through all this punishment and not amend or change his behaviour, why was he picking on my son. After more investigation and a lot of thought I came up with a solution for my son. I told him every time he says or does something say “it doesn’t matter what you say or do Luke, I’ll still be your friend” and to then walk away. We also encouraged Jared to play with other children and made a point of inviting these kids over to our house.

Jared is now in High School in the “clever” class, he represents the school in basketball and has a great group of mates. Unfortunately Luke has been expelled from two high schools and I often see him roaming the streets alone.

I feel that as a society we have let the Luke’s of this world down. No one wins when there is bullying behaviour and not all victims of bullying cope and move on as well as my son. We as a community must be more active in combating bullying not only at school but at home and in the workplace. The big question is HOW?

- 'A Concerned Mum' for Enough is Enough

Helping Youth Develop Resiliency

• Identify the youth's assets
• Identify the family's assets
• Role-model positive behaviour
• Encourage learning and participation in extracurricular activities
• Encourage the youth to explore and identify his or her values and beliefs
• Teach communication skills, problem-solving skills, and decision-making skills
• Promote community involvement
• Help youth to identify goals and find the resources to help achieve these goals
• Set clear expectations with the youth
• Encourage the youth to develop a positive sense of self
  
  Source: SAMHSA, an Agency of the U.S. Department of Health & Human Services
  
  
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  Enough is Enough presents:
  Positive Solutions Bullying Resilience Program
  Our new program focuses on resilience building in all students from K-12
  Click here for more information

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To keep up to date with our news, new articles and current events connect with us on Twitter, Facebook, and our E-Newsletter.
For information about Enough is Enough Anti Violence Movement visit: www.enoughisenough.org.au

Peacemaker Project in Schools NSW

Cranbrook School , Sydney received an award in recognition of their support of the Peacemaker Project from Ken Marslew on Wednesday 25 November 2009 at a special school assembly. Cranbrook school is one of 20 schools across NSW, that were honoured as peacemakers for their active involvement in the Peacemaker Project for the last eight years. Ken congratulated the school on their dedication to building a harmonious school in their local community.

The Peacemaker Project is the schools program that has been taken to over 300 schools across NSW focusing on the issues of personal responsibility, overcoming adversity, facing fear, maintaining self control and building inner strength, resilience and developing leadership skills. The project is comprised of  life skills modules, covering everything from anger management and bullying , drink-driving and binge drinking to sexual violence and gender issues.

The modules are taught by dynamic presenters, many of who have experienced real-life tragedies in their own families through violence, drugs, alcohol or the death of a loved one. All their stories are real.

“Their passion comes from experience and the students respond to that. The people that are with us are people who have turned the single most negative experience in their life into something positive. If you can give kids a message or a role model like that, in today’s environment, then you can give kids hope.” – said Ken Marslew.
The project is offered as a series of sessions and also can be run as an entire day’s program, at the school’s convenience.

“Our mission is to reach as many kids as possible – of any age – to reinforce what they are being taught about on the core values of society.”

Peacemaker Project - Life Skills to Change, Challenge and Save Lives - for every High School Student. Download Peacemaker Project brochure. (PDF 1 MB).

Practical Strategies to Deal with Bullying from Renowned Australian Personalities and Experts - DVD Highlights

Providing practical strategies to effectively deal with bullying was the focus of the Enough is Enough POSITIVE SOLUTIONS Anti-Bullying Conference.

Please watch our short trailer video from the conference.

Speakers include personalities Jessica Rowe, Jason Stevens and John Stanley; renowned anti-bullying expert Professor Ken Rigby, Assistant Commissioner for Corrective Services Luke Grant, and a line-up of professionals covering topics from early intervention strategies to the likely progression to crime and domestic violence when left unchecked. Teenagers Nathan Cassar and Thomasa Wan Lum discuss their personal experiences in overcoming bullying and violence.

This DVD and workbook package is going out to every high school in NSW for FREE. Does your secondary school have their copy yet? If not please order online now and we will send you one out immediately. Don't miss out on your chance to receive a resource to combat bullying in your school.

Observations of an Ordinary Bloke - ON BULLYING

Bullying in schools is not the tip of the iceberg, it is part of  ' what lies beneath'. The real tip of the iceberg is the increased level of violence that appears to be happening across society, across the world - road rage, trolley rage, queue rage, levels of assault, increased levels of domestic violence. Bullying is the precursor to this epidemic. How bullying is dealt with in its early stages will have a long-term impact on society.

There is plenty of talk but little action. Bullying is different things to different people, but if an initial description and standardized policy is agreed upon, the issue can be dealt with together. There are some good anti-bullying strategies available and in many schools. Some suggestions for school include counselling and enrollment into programs to deal with their behaviour (perhaps programs that the whole year group can be involved in). For example, emotional management, relationships, conflict resolution and life skills, aligned with curriculum. 

When dealing with those who are the target of bullying and harassment, it is necessary to be mindful that victims are not given assistance in the development of an impact statement. Protecting them at school may be possible, but not in the broader community, and this may set them up to be victims elsewhere. Building resilience in these people is critical in their long-term ability to deal with similar issues. 


It would be beneficial to encourage the philosophy of Victim, Survivor, Thriver - The Journey.   



Read more here  (Observations of an Ordinary Bloke - ON BULLYING - by Ken Marslew, Educational Activities Magazine)

Ken Marslew has been working in the area of positive behaviour change for over a decade. Following the murder of his son Michael in 1994, he formed the organisation Enough is Enough Anti Violence Movement Inc.  Ken Marslew's pragmatic approach to dealing with change sees his programs in over twenty correctional centres across NSW, working with men, women and juveniles. He also runs programs for behaviourally challneged students in high and primary schools NSW. For more information about EIE anti bullying programs in schools, the content and availability, please visit our School Programs Page.